Organ Evolution

By Ina Grapenthin

Panpipes

The pipes associated in mythology with the Greek god Pan are the legendary ancestor of the organ. Greek shepherds played a similar instrument, called the panpipes of syrinx, made from strong reeds of different lengths bound together. The organ evolved from such a set of simple pipes with the addition of an air pressure source and a mechanical means of admitting or shutting off the wind as desired.

Hydraulis or Water Organ

The hydraulis, or water organ, was invented in Alexandria (then a center of technological knowledge) around 250 B.C. In this early organ, water pumped into a jar caused the displaced air to sound the variously pitched pipes while keys or levers controlled the wind supply to each pipe. Even though the hydraulis had a very loud, penetrating tone which was not particularly musical, it became one of the most popular instruments of the Roman Empire. Nero was supposedly an enthusiastic player.

Pneumatic Organ

In the early A.D. centuries, hydraulic mechanisms gradually were replaced with bellows to provide a source of wind. The earliest representation of a pneumatic organ is found on an obelisk erected in Constantinople around 395 A.D. This instrument was quite small and the weight of two youths standing compressed the bellows. Following the decline and Roman civilizations, organ development passed to the Middle East. Slowly the organ filtered back to Europe, finding a place in the Medieval church as early the 5th century.

Portative Organ

The portative organ, carried by a strap around the neck, was first heard of in England in the 12th century and flourished both there and on the Continent in the following three centuries. Played with right hand and blown with the left, the portative was used in church processions, in the homes of merchants, in private chapels of the nobility, and as accompaniment for Miracle and Mystery plays. Both the positive and portative organs soon obtained a more or less complete chromatic keyboard, of a size and touch convenient to be played with the fingers.

Medieval Cathedral Organ

The organ of the Middle Ages was usually an enormous and cumbersome instrument which probably played only a melodic line, due to limited keyboards and no stops to alter volume and timbre. The famous organ constructed at Halberstadt Cathedral in 1361, for example, required wind from twenty bellows pumped by 10 hard-working men. The lowest pipe on this organ was about 29 feet tall and 14 inches in diameter. The size of such pipes, it is assumed, led to the first pedals since the use of the foot would be an easier means of controlling the wind supply.

Positive Organ

The positive organ, developing simultaneously with the grand Gothic organs, was so called because it was "placed" in a certain position on the floor or table to be played although it could be moved. Some positive organs had keys so wide that the organist must use his whole hand to play one note. Keyboards first began to appear in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Registration

By Ina Grapenthin

As a clinician, I'm often asked by beginning organists for suggestions on how to use registration. This is complex subject to address, because the "right" selection of stops for any given composition depends upon two things: the first is the type of sounds appropriate for that particular composition; the second is the organist's understanding of how the instrument works to create these sounds.

Much of the terminology used in registration is confusing until you understand that it refers to the way sounds are produced on a pipe organ. This terminology is always the same, whether you are playing a pipe or an electronic instrument. A good example is the way we express the pitch of the stops:

Pitch Levels

The pitch level of a particular stop is indicated by a number which refers to the physical length of the longest pipe (lowest note) in the rank of pipes controlled by that stop. ( A "rank" is a row of pipes that is voiced as a unit.) A stop marked "8'," for example, controls a rank of pipes the longest of which is eight feet long.

An 8' stop always speaks at a "concert" or "piano" pitch. A 4' stop sounds an octave higher, a 2' stop, two octaves higher, and a 1' stop three octaves higher, Conversely, a 16' stop sounds an octave lower, and so forth.

Mutations

Stops that are indicated by numbers that include fractions (2 2/3', 1 3/5', 1 1/3') are know as mutations. When you use a mutation stop, you are not hearing octaves. If you pull a 2 2/3' stop and play "C," for example, you will hear "C" plus one octave and a fifth higher. A 1 3/5' stop would produce a "C" plus the E3 (two octaves and a third higher.) A 1 1/3' stop produces the "C" plus the G3 (two octaves and a fifth above).

It is necessary to combine mutation stops with an 8' stop to bring out their tonal "colors." You can create a clarinet sound for example, by pulling a Flute 8' stop and combining it with the 2 2/3'.

Some solo stops combine octave and mutation sounds for you. If your organ has a stop called the Cornet (pronounced Kor-nay) it combines Flute 8', 4' and 2' with the mutations 2 2/3' and 1 3/5'. Its sound is used in many Baroque and contemporary works.

Mixtures

A Roman numeral on a stop indicates that it brings into "play" a compound sound of two (II) to seven (VII) pitches. Mixtures are not stops to be used by themselves, as they are clusters of high pitches (octaves, thirds and fifths). Their purpose is to add brilliance to 8', 4' and 2' foundations and clarity to the independent voices of contrapuntal music such as Bach fugues. They are unique because they "break back," or repeat, at each octave as you play up the keyboard. The mixture stops are derived from the "Principal" family of organ tones.

Once you understand the musical relationships behind the numerical markings on the stops, you're ready to tackle their names. The names of organ stops have developed over centuries and they may be of English, German, French or Italian derivation. All stops on the organ, however, are divided into four tonal "families," - Principals, Flutes, Strings and Reeds.

Principals

The Principal stops of a church organ are the tonal colors which have the characteristic sounds of the organ and do not imitate any orchestral instrument. The Principals on your organ may be referred to as "Principal,: "Diapason" or "Montre," and also include any stops which include the words "Octave" or "Bass." The Principal sounds are often used for hymns and the liturgy, and you should familiarize yourself with your instrument's Principal Chorus (A chorus is a group of stops designed to work together as a cohesive sound.) Here is an example of a typical Principal Chorus: Principal 8', Octave 4', Super Octave 2', Mixture VIII.

Some tips for using Principals: When you are accompanying congregational singing, remember that the congregation sings at the 8' pitch level. To lead, and to enable the congregation to hear, it is wise to use at least the 4' above the 8'.

Principals 8', 4', and 2' should be accompanied by the same timbre in the pedals at 16', 8', and 4' (The pedal line has a tendency to disappear unless a 16' is used.). If your instrument has a Gemshorn 8', you can use this stop in place of the Principal 8', to lighten the sound of the Principal Chorus - an effect that is useful in contrapuntal music.

Flutes

Flutes are divided into two main categories: "open," and "stopped." (These terms simply refer to the kinds of pipes on which these sounds are made.) Flutes have a variety of names such as Gedeckt and Bourdon (the most common), and include any stop ending with the word "flote" (of German derivation) and any stop beginning with the word "flute" (a French derivation). A real fooler is the "stopped Diapason" which is not a Diapason at all but a stopped Flute.

Some tips for using Flutes:For a round, full effect useful in recessionals and majestic hymns, try using Flute sounds combined with the Principals. (If you don't have the Gemshorn stop I mentioned earlier, using an 8' Flute stop on the Great manual will also lighten the sound of the Principal Chorus.)

Flutes can also serve as accompaniments to the choir or a soloist and may be used as solo stops (separately or in groups). Why not try a 4' Flute as a solo voice? Many Baroque manual pieces and Neo-Baroque compositions use the combination of Flute 8' and 2' or Flute 8' and 1' for fast-moving passages. Try experimenting with your Flute stops. An 8' Flute added to an 8' Reed can give the Reed a horn like quality, while a 4' Flute added to the 8' Reed gives a plaintive effect.

Strings

Although one would assume so, the String stops of the organ are not meant to imitate actual orchestral strings. They are generally found on the Swell manual and have names such as Viole, Viole Celeste, Violene, Salicional (most common) and Gamba.

The word "Celeste" in the name of a stop denotes the there are two ranks of pipes speaking at the same time, slightly de-tuned (sharp), producing an undulating effect.

Some tips for using Strings: Strings can be used as background music during communion or as an accompaniment to Flutes. (Gambas and Salicionals can speak singularly or can also create a "celeste" effect with a twin. Because of the vibrato effect of a Celeste, this stop is not a wise choice to accompanying singing.

Reeds

The Reeds were the last of the tonal "families" to appear on the organ and date from about the 16th century. Their name is also misleading, in that Reed stops include some sounds (like the trumpet) which would be found in the brass, rather than woodwind, section of an orchestra. Some common solo Reeds are the Oboe (Hautbois), Krummhorn and Schalmei. The Oboe has a pungent, nasal sound and is often the only Reed available on a smaller instrument. The Krummhorn is the stop most often used to carry the cantus firmus in a chorale prelude. The Schalmei, (usually at 4' on the Pedal division of the organ) is used for solo pedal melodies. The Posaune and Bombarde in the pedal support the full ensemble, even with couplers drawn.

While the pipes for most Reed stops are mounted vertically, there are available on some instruments a body of Reeds called the "Trompette en Chamade." On a pipe instrument, these pipes are mounted "en chamade," or in a horizontal position to allow the sound to spread throughout the air space without interference from the other pipes or shutters. You would use this stop in majestic processionals, or to sound a trumpet fanfare.

Some tips for using Reeds: Adding the Schalmei to the foundations can brighten and clarify the pedal line in a fugue. A 16' Fagott, another light pedal Reed, also helps keep pedal passages clear and clean.

The Bassoon 16, Trompette 8' and Clarion 4' are pleasing used in ensemble as well as solo stops. The three together create a majestic fanfare effect. As solo stops, try playing them in different registers: the Bassoon 16' one octave higher; or the Clarion 4' or Trompette 8' one octave lower. Accompany them with Flutes.

Obviously, in a basic discussion or registration such as this, I can give you only the barest start in learning "when to stop." To learn more, and discover the great creative pleasure a musician can derive from interpreting music with the tonal colors of the organ, I recommend the following references:

Organ Registration: In Theory and Practice, by Harold E. Geer, Published by Carl Fisher, Glen Rock NY 1951.

Dictionary of Pipe Organ Stops, by Steven Irwin, Published by G. Schirmer, NY 1965.

The Organ, by William Summer, Published by MacDonald, London, England 1964.

Amens

By Ina Grapenthin

Amen ("Verily, so be it!" or "It is true!") is an expression that is indiscriminate of denomination. Some churches use an amen at the close of every hymn, while others don't use it at all. So is there a rhyme or reason behind the singing of an amen? To answer this question, I find myself turning to the Old Testament, where we find the earliest uses of "amen."

In Chronicles 16:36, the words "amen" or "Praise the Lord" are used in response to a doxology. The word "doxology" comes from the Greek words "doxa" which means "glory," and "logas," meaning "discourse." Therefore, in any liturgical hymn of praise or glorification of God the amen is an appropriate conclusion. Other references that use "amen" in this sense are Psalms 41:13, 72:19, 89:52 and 106:48.

"Amen" is also a word used to bind or confirm an oath, as in Nehemiah 5:13, or a statement (see Numbers 5:22; Jeremiah 11:15). In some churches in the United States, a group of worshippers sits to the side of the pulpit and leads responsive amens. This group is known as the "amen corner," and its function is to express assent or approval.

King David, in I Kings 1:32-36, instructed the priest and the prophet to anoint Solomon as king over Israel. An "amen" was used to confirm the acceptance of a task requiring the will of God. In some manuscripts concerning how one should pray (Matthew 6:9), the beloved "Our Father" (Lord's Prayer) ends with an amen.

According to the old version of the Lutheran Service Book and Hymnal, an amen should not be played if the hymn is narrative, contemplative, intending to convey information or if it gives warning or advice. It is appropriate to sing an amen for praise, prayer and promise or confirmation.

Armed with these insights, how should an organist best interpret and play an amen? I feel that when an amen is to be sung, it should be played in the same tempo and with the same dynamic level as that of the last phrase of the hymn. Not to do so confuses the congregation and robs the amen of its affirmative role.

Let the music dictate whether you tie the common tone between the last chord and the amen, or separate the last chord from the amen. Tying the common tone is a great way to signal the congregation that the hymn is ending, especially if verses have been omitted. On the other hand, confusion may reign if you use this technique when the final note of the hymn is different from the first note of the amen.

Last, action. It should be played and sung with all the strength and commitment which it represents, for it is a special legacy - an affirmation of faith that has been used by God's people through the ages.

Articulation and Pedaling

By Ina Grapenthin

Does Your Right Hand Know What Your Left Foot is Doing?

If you're a pianist who's been drafted to become a church organist, you'll probably never forget the first time you sat down to play. ("What? Three lines of music? I'm expected to play notes with my feet?")

As a clinician and teacher, I can assure you every pianist turned organist has struggled with the same problems. And as a church music director, I applaud you for accepting the challenge. There is a severe shortage of church organists in this country, and I hope the following tips and techniques for using your hands and feet will encourage you to develop your skills further, both for your own pleasure and the enrichment of your church's music program.

The Hands: Mastering Articulation

The most familiar area of an organ to a pianist is undoubtedly the keyboard, or manual. But articulation - the connection or separation of tones through a variety of touches - is very different on the organ than it is on the piano. Organ touch is legato; think of your touch as depressing the key, rather than striking it.

Stravinsky once called the organ a "monster that never breathes." If so, this isn't the fault of the organ, but an organist who is not articulating. To avoid a plodding, continuous sound, the organist must control the duration of the note in the attack and the release, as opposed to the pianist, who is concerned only with the attack.

Hand position is as important to the organist as it is to the pianist. Strive for relaxed wrists and rounded hands, with the fingers well forward on the keys. As a student in Germany, my own poor hand position was brought to my attention one day when my teacher suddenly exclaimed, "Ze zum, ze um!" Realizing I was baffled by this unfamiliar "German phrase," he took my thumb, which had been hanging below the keyboard, and placed it where it belonged.

Voice-leading is another important technique in "making the monster breathe." I define voice-leading as the ability to simultaneously attack two or more keys with different durations using one hand. For example, the altos might be holding a whole note, while the sopranos are simultaneously singing four quarter notes, and the music calls for you to play them all with the same hand. To master correct voice-leading, you will need to develop finger independence, or the ability to operate each of your fingers separately and easily without involving the others.

You can judge your degree of finger independence by placing your hand on the manual in good position. Depress fingers two and four on a quiet keyboard. Now, keeping two and four depressed, play the thumb, release - third, release - and fifth, release. With a good hand position, two and four can be held down through the entire exercise.
Finger substitution, or changing from one finger to another on the same key without interrupting the sound, is another important manual technique, and it must be done rhythmically. This is a technique few pianists perfect, because they can achieve the same effect with the damper pedal.

Repeated notes present another problem. To articulate repeated notes clearly in a quick or moderate tempo, Widor advises the organist that "there must intervene between repetitions periods of silence equal to the duration of the sound. In other words, every repeated note loses half of its value." Obviously, this applies only to notes of shorter duration. In the case of repeated whole notes, only one-eighth the value should be dropped.

How do you make the organ "sing"? It's possible to have mastered good articulation techniques and still play mechanically. C.P.E. Bach advised singing instrumental melodies to "understand their best performance." He advocated making the organ "sing" by not only "taking breaths" between and within phrases, but also adopting a singer's approach to individual notes and sub-phrase groupings.

Your church's acoustics will also affect your articulation. Does sound die quickly in your building? Is there adequate reverberation? Listen to your playing and practice the touch you need to achieve the best musical effects.

The Feet: Conquering the Pedalboard

Because it's so foreign to the pianist, the pedalboard is probably the most dreaded feature on the organ. To become a good organist, what you do not want to do is permanently position your right foot on the expression pedal and abandon the left to work the pedalboard alone.

An organist plays the pedalboard with both feet, and a comfortable position on the bench that leaves them free to move is absolutely necessary. The most important thing to remember is to keep your knees together in all use of the pedals except where your feet must reach to the extremes of the pedalboard. This position keeps your body essentially one member from the knees up, and allows your feet to move about freely without the extra effort required to move each foot separately from the hips. Don't position your feet too far back on the keys, and make the attack with the ball of your foot to prevent sliding.

To practice pedalboard technique, it's best to begin with the center notes and work outward: Place your left foot over the note "C" (in the center of the pedalboard) and place your right foot over "G". Now play the rhythm indicated in Figure 2. Moving from the hips, go down the pedalboard one note. Continue moving down to "E" and "A" and "D" to "G".

To coordinate keyboard and pedalboard you might want to practice "Hymn to Joy" by Gordon Young, which uses this exact pedalboard rhythm and set of notes as an ostinato figure in the bass. It is found in the collection "Chorale Preludes on Seven Hymn Tunes": published by Harold Flammer.

You might also want to practice simple trios (three-part counterpoint) with each hand taking a separate part, and the feet playing the third. Examples of these can be found in any good organ instruction book. An excellent and very complete text for the serious organ student is Method of Organ Playing by Harold Gleason, published by Prentice-Hall.

Organ techniques, like piano techniques, improve with practice. I recommend using pieces from the following repertoire and building your skills gradually from the easier pieces to the more difficult. As you abilities grow, you'll soon discover the organ is a creative, exciting challenge--not a "monster" after all!

Hymn Playing

By Ina Grapenthin

Too many organists feel that "anyone can play a hymn!" I would like to challenge that. Smooth, correct hymn playing is more difficult than most people suspect. While hymns are usually the least interesting part of church music to an organist, they play an essential role in the service. As a communal activity of the congregation, hymns give the people an opportunity to express their "inner song." Your goal in hymn playing is to help your choir and congregation enter into the Spirit. This can't be done by drawing them out in a plodding, doleful manner!

Tempo

Even if you know a hymn well, take a moment to concentrate on its correct tempo before you begin to play. By "correct" I mean a tempo relevant to and dependent upon the text of the hymn, its meter, and its place in the service. Also consider your organ, the average age of your congregation and your church's acoustics.

Speed in hymn playing is not a virtue. To be able to sing well, the congregation needs sufficient time to comprehend the meaning of the text and follow the alto, tenor or bass lines with ease. If the organist drags, which is the more common mistake, the congregation will run out of breath and patience, and the meaning will again be lost.

If your congregation gets behind, don't hesitate or slow down; this only makes matters worse. Instead, try decided staccato playing (by this, I mean staccato playing on every note in all parts) to bring them back to time.

Many organists make it a rule to tie all repeated notes except the melody. This practice totally destroys the rhythm and confuses the congregation. When practicing a hymn, the principles of part-playing should be carefully followed. This means playing all the repeated notes exactly, and the other notes legato. If any notes are tied, they are usually in the bass or pedal lines.

Hand position

Another mistaken notion is that the treble clef is a sign meaning "use the right hand" and the bass clef means "use the left hand." Clefs merely show which notes we are to play. The pedal customarily plays the bass line, exactly where it is written. All fingers of both hands should work as one large, extended "hand," playing the soprano, alto and tenor parts with the fingers that reach the notes most easily, regardless of which voice those notes are in. When you pass the notes of alto and tenor between the hands, you will accomplish smooth voice-leading.

Registration

Registration for congregational singing should be based on clear 8', 4' and 2' pitches, rarely 16' in the manuals. The volume level should support the congregation, not drown them out. Mixtures can be added to the last verse for a special effect. I use reeds sparingly as they become oppressive.

Playing the melody on a solo stop is good for some hymns, especially those sung in unison or unfamiliar to the congregation. This demands that you play the soprano melody on a prominent registration with the alto and tenor in the left hand and bass on the pedal.

You can also omit the pedal line for a refreshing change, but remember to look the piece over first, for the left hand will now be playing the bass line as well.

Select your registrations in response to the text of the hymn. There is often a progressive flow of ideas in the text which can be "painted" through creative registration.

Variety

In fact, variety and creativity are the secrets of good, exciting hymn playing. Try something different, like beginning with a hymn introduction or intonation. An intonation provides the opportunity to reflect the spirit of the hymn and present a fresh interpretation of its text before the congregation begins singing.

Other variations you can try are free harmonizations, canons, changing keys between verses and instrumental and choral descants. To start you on your way to more interesting hymn playing, try some pieces from the following listing of published free accompaniments and intonations.

• Intonations for Hymn of the Week by Theodore Beck (Concordia)
• Hymn Introductions by Jan Bender (Concordia)
• Organ Descants for Selected Hymn Tunes by G. Winston Cassier (Augsburg)
• Interpretations Based on Hymn Tunes (Vol. 1-5) by David Cherwien (AMSI)
• The Concordia Hymn Prelude Series (Vol. 1-42) by Herbert Gotsch (Concordia)
• Eleven Hymn Intonations and Free Accompaniments (Vol. 1-11) by David Herman (G.I.A.)
• Free Harmonizations of Twelve Hymn Tunes by David Johnson (Augsburg)
• Free Hymn Accompaniments for Manuals (Vol. 1-2) by David Johnson (Augsburg)
• Ten Short Intonations on Well-Known Hymns by Paul Manz (Augsburg)
• Twenty Hymn Introductions by Sadowski (Concordia)
• Free Organ Accompaniments to Festival Hymns (Vol. 1-4)
• Hymn Preludes and Free Accompaniments (Vol. 1-15) (Augsburg)